Current native
3
exact source areas
Home / Plants / Grow / Jeffrey Pine
Pinus jeffreyi
Your local evidence lens
A genus split is not a placement verdict. Set a ZIP to read the local documented split.
The status above is computed from the cited rows below: independent recommendations can support a fire-resistant result, an avoid row can produce keep-away, and disagreement stays visible as conflict. Placement notes preserve each source’s own scheme rather than translating unlike rules into one scale. This is evidence about a plant, not permission to plant it in every part of the defensible space; Zone 0 remains noncombustible.
These are exact U.S. botanical-area records from the cited range source. Native and introduced describe biogeographic relationship, not fire performance or planting approval. Doubtful and extinct rows stay visible but do not count as current presence.
Current native
exact source areas
Current introduced
exact source areas
Qualified
doubtful or extinct source rows
USDA PLANTS Database — Plant Characteristics
Minimum 3a · no upper limit documented
Fire Resistance of Plants Master Database
“fire-resistance score 1 of 10”
Home Landscaping Guide for Lake Tahoe and Vicinity (Ed. Bulletin 06-01)
“high — Pine, Jeffrey — Pinus jeffreyi”
Table 1's Fire Hazard column prints “high” for this taxon. The guide calls the rating a rough estimate of potential flammability, not a result of scientific trials. Its footnote says plants that turn brown often become high fire hazards and tells readers to mow grasses and forbs when they begin to turn brown.
FLAMITS: FLAMmability plant traiTS database
“time to flaming (s): 2.7”
FLAMITS record 2631; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2012-1; sampling summer. Primary study deMagalhaes2012: De Magalhães, R. M. Q., & Schwilk, D. W. (2012). Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1153-1163.
“burning duration (s): 487.5”
FLAMITS record 2639; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2012-1; sampling summer. Primary study deMagalhaes2012: De Magalhães, R. M. Q., & Schwilk, D. W. (2012). Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1153-1163.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.32”
FLAMITS record 2647; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2012-1; sampling summer. Primary study deMagalhaes2012: De Magalhães, R. M. Q., & Schwilk, D. W. (2012). Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1153-1163.
“flame height (cm): 106”
FLAMITS record 2655; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2012-1; sampling summer. Primary study deMagalhaes2012: De Magalhães, R. M. Q., & Schwilk, D. W. (2012). Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1153-1163.
“burnt biomass (%): 95.4”
FLAMITS record 2663; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2012-1; sampling summer. Primary study deMagalhaes2012: De Magalhães, R. M. Q., & Schwilk, D. W. (2012). Leaf traits and litter flammability: evidence for non-additive mixture effects in a temperate forest. Journal of Ecology, 100, 1153-1163.
“flame height (cm): 67.3”
FLAMITS record 3367; Combustibility measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2001-1; sampling ND. Primary study Fonda2001: Fonda, R. W. (2001). Burning characteristics of needles from eight pine species. Forest Science, 47, 390-396.
“flaming duration (s): 79.2”
FLAMITS record 3368; Sustainability measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2001-1; sampling ND. Primary study Fonda2001: Fonda, R. W. (2001). Burning characteristics of needles from eight pine species. Forest Science, 47, 390-396.
“burning duration (s): 385.8”
FLAMITS record 3369; Sustainability measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2001-1; sampling ND. Primary study Fonda2001: Fonda, R. W. (2001). Burning characteristics of needles from eight pine species. Forest Science, 47, 390-396.
“burnt biomass (%): 90”
FLAMITS record 3370; Consumability measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2001-1; sampling ND. Primary study Fonda2001: Fonda, R. W. (2001). Burning characteristics of needles from eight pine species. Forest Science, 47, 390-396.
“mass loss rate (g/s): 0.04”
FLAMITS record 3371; Combustibility measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2001-1; sampling ND. Primary study Fonda2001: Fonda, R. W. (2001). Burning characteristics of needles from eight pine species. Forest Science, 47, 390-396.
“flame height (cm): 69.3”
FLAMITS record 3392; Combustibility measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“flaming duration (s): 262”
FLAMITS record 3393; Sustainability measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“smouldering duration (s): 4412”
FLAMITS record 3394; Sustainability measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“burning duration (s): 4674”
FLAMITS record 3395; Sustainability measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“burnt biomass (%): 89”
FLAMITS record 3396; Consumability measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“mass loss rate (g/s): 0.02”
FLAMITS record 3397; Combustibility measurement; plant part cones; fuel dead; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Fonda2004-1; sampling august to october. Primary study Fonda2004: Fonda, R., & Varner, J. (2004). Burning characteristics of cones from eight pine species. Northwest Science, 78, 322-333.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 599.5”
FLAMITS record 13435; Combustibility measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 432.31”
FLAMITS record 13436; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5051.59”
FLAMITS record 13437; Combustibility measurement; plant part leaves; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5171.01”
FLAMITS record 13438; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5225.95”
FLAMITS record 13511; Combustibility measurement; plant part wood; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5073.09”
FLAMITS record 13512; Combustibility measurement; plant part wood; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5340.59”
FLAMITS record 13513; Combustibility measurement; plant part wood; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“calorific value (kcal/kg): 5132.8”
FLAMITS record 13514; Combustibility measurement; plant part wood; fuel live; predrying yes; device calorimeter; site vanWagtendonk1998-1; sampling ND. Primary study vanWagtendonk1998: Van Wagdendonk, J., Sydoriak, W. M., & Benedict, J. M. (1998). Heat content variation of Sierra Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 8, 147-158.
“flame height (cm): 83.9”
FLAMITS record 15689; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Varner2022-15; sampling ND. Primary study Varner2022: Varner, J. M., Shearman, T. M., Kane, J. M., Banwell, E., Jules, E., & Stambaugh, M. (2022). Understanding flammability and bark thickness in the genus Pinus using a phylogenetic approach. Scientific Reports, 12, 7384.
“flaming duration (s): 105.1”
FLAMITS record 15690; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Varner2022-15; sampling ND. Primary study Varner2022: Varner, J. M., Shearman, T. M., Kane, J. M., Banwell, E., Jules, E., & Stambaugh, M. (2022). Understanding flammability and bark thickness in the genus Pinus using a phylogenetic approach. Scientific Reports, 12, 7384.
“smouldering duration (s): 410.7”
FLAMITS record 15691; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Varner2022-15; sampling ND. Primary study Varner2022: Varner, J. M., Shearman, T. M., Kane, J. M., Banwell, E., Jules, E., & Stambaugh, M. (2022). Understanding flammability and bark thickness in the genus Pinus using a phylogenetic approach. Scientific Reports, 12, 7384.
“burnt biomass (%): 89”
FLAMITS record 15692; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying yes; device burning bench; site Varner2022-15; sampling ND. Primary study Varner2022: Varner, J. M., Shearman, T. M., Kane, J. M., Banwell, E., Jules, E., & Stambaugh, M. (2022). Understanding flammability and bark thickness in the genus Pinus using a phylogenetic approach. Scientific Reports, 12, 7384.
“time to flaming (s): 6.58”
FLAMITS record 16886; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 5.74”
FLAMITS record 16887; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 8.44”
FLAMITS record 16888; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 8.09”
FLAMITS record 16889; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 8.29”
FLAMITS record 16890; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 7.11”
FLAMITS record 16891; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“time to flaming (s): 13.07”
FLAMITS record 16892; Ignitability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 1197.59”
FLAMITS record 16893; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 871.66”
FLAMITS record 16894; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 1007.88”
FLAMITS record 16895; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 822.34”
FLAMITS record 16896; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 761.9”
FLAMITS record 16897; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 262.39”
FLAMITS record 16898; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burning duration (s): 34.88”
FLAMITS record 16899; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 878”
FLAMITS record 16900; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 916”
FLAMITS record 16901; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 792”
FLAMITS record 16902; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 634”
FLAMITS record 16903; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 606.67”
FLAMITS record 16904; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 364”
FLAMITS record 16905; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“flame height (cm): 158”
FLAMITS record 16906; Combustibility measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 84.07”
FLAMITS record 16907; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 88.24”
FLAMITS record 16908; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 56.41”
FLAMITS record 16909; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 42.07”
FLAMITS record 16910; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 28.14”
FLAMITS record 16911; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 6.31”
FLAMITS record 16912; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“burnt biomass (%): 1.66”
FLAMITS record 16913; Consumability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.154”
FLAMITS record 16914; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.191”
FLAMITS record 16915; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.121”
FLAMITS record 16916; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.116”
FLAMITS record 16917; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.097”
FLAMITS record 16918; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.08”
FLAMITS record 16919; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.
“rate of burning spread (cm/s): 0.04”
FLAMITS record 16920; Sustainability measurement; plant part litter; fuel all; predrying no; device burning bench; site deMagalhaes2017-1; sampling ND. Primary study deMagalhaes2017: de Magalhães, R. (2017). The effect of leaf traits on litter flammability in mixed-conifer forest. PhD. Dissertation. Texas Tech University.